How Is Our Knowledge of Ancient Art Similar to Different From Our Knowledge of Prehistoric Art?

Art produced in preliterate cultures

Non to be dislocated with Paleoart.

In the history of art, prehistoric art is all art produced in preliterate, prehistorical cultures beginning somewhere in very tardily geological history, and generally standing until that culture either develops writing or other methods of record-keeping, or makes significant contact with another civilisation that has, and that makes some tape of major historical events. At this point ancient fine art begins, for the older literate cultures. The cease-date for what is covered by the term thus varies greatly between different parts of the world.^[1]

The earliest man artifacts showing evidence of workmanship with an artistic purpose are the subject of some debate. Information technology is articulate that such workmanship existed past 40,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic era, although information technology is quite possible that it began before. In September 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the earliest known cartoon by Human sapiens, which is estimated to be 73,000 years erstwhile, much before than the 43,000 years onetime artifacts understood to be the primeval known modern human drawings establish previously.^[ii]

Engraved shells created by Homo erectus dating every bit far back as 500,000 years ago accept been found, although experts disagree on whether these engravings can be properly classified equally 'fine art'.^[3] From the Upper Paleolithic through to the Mesolithic, cavern paintings and portable art such as figurines and beads predominated, with decorative figured workings also seen on some utilitarian objects. In the Neolithic bear witness of early pottery appeared, every bit did sculpture and the structure of megaliths. Early rock art also get-go appeared during this period. The appearance of metalworking in the Bronze Age brought boosted media bachelor for utilize in making art, an increment in stylistic diverseness, and the creation of objects that did not have whatever obvious office other than fine art. It as well saw the evolution in some areas of artisans, a class of people specializing in the production of art, also as early on writing systems. By the Iron Age, civilizations with writing had arisen from Aboriginal Egypt to Ancient China.

Many indigenous peoples from around the world continued to produce creative works distinctive to their geographic area and civilization, until exploration and commerce brought record-keeping methods to them. Some cultures, notably the Maya civilization, independently developed writing during the time they flourished, which was so subsequently lost. These cultures may be classified as prehistoric, especially if their writing systems have not been deciphered.

Paleolithic era [edit]

Lower and Middle Paleolithic [edit]

The earliest undisputed fine art originated with the Homo sapiens Aurignacian archaeological civilization in the Upper Paleolithic. Withal, there is some evidence that the preference for the artful emerged in the Middle Paleolithic, from 100,000 to 50,000 years agone. Some archaeologists accept interpreted certain Center Paleolithic artifacts as early examples of artistic expression.^{[5] [6]} The symmetry of artifacts, bear witness of attention to the detail of tool shape, has led some investigators to conceive of Acheulean hand axes and especially laurel points as having been produced with a degree of artistic expression.

Claimed "Oldest known cartoon past human hands", discovered in Blombos Cavern in Due south Africa. Estimated to be 73,000 years onetime.^[2]

Similarly, a zigzag engraving supposedly fabricated with a shark tooth on a freshwater Pseudodon trounce DUB1006-fL around 500,000 years agone (i.e. well into the Lower Paleolithic), associated with Homo erectus, could exist the earliest evidence of artistic activity, but the bodily intent behind this geometric ornament is not known.^[four]

At that place are other claims of Middle Paleolithic sculpture, dubbed the "Venus of Tan-Tan" (before 300 kya)^[7] and the "Venus of Berekhat Ram" (250 kya). In 2002 in Blombos cave, situated in South Africa, stones were discovered engraved with filigree or cross-hatch patterns, dated to some 70,000 years ago. This suggested to some researchers that early Homo sapiens were capable of abstraction and product of abstract fine art or symbolic art. Several archaeologists including Richard Klein are hesitant to accept the Blombos caves as the get-go case of bodily art.

In September 2018 the discovery in South Africa of the earliest known drawing by Homo sapiens was announced, which is estimated to be 73,000 years old, much earlier than the 43,000 years erstwhile artifacts understood to exist the earliest known modernistic man drawings institute previously.^[2] The drawing shows a crosshatched blueprint made upwards of nine fine lines. The sudden termination of all of the lines on the fragment edges indicate that the pattern originally extended over a larger surface.^[8] It is also estimated that the pattern was almost likely more than circuitous and structured in its entirety than shown on the discovered area. Initially, when this drawing was found, there was much debate. To prove that this drawing was created by Human Sapiens, French team members who specialized in chemical analysis of pigments, reproduced the aforementioned lines using a diverseness of techniques.^[ix] They ended that the lines making upwards the drawing were intentional and were nigh likely made with ocher. This discovery adds farther dimensions to understanding the behavior and cognition of early on homo sapiens.

Neanderthals may have made art. Painted designs in the caves of La Pasiega (Cantabria), a hand stencil in Maltravieso (Extremadura), and red-painted speleothems in Ardales (Andalusia) are dated to 64,800 years agone, predating by at least 20,000 years the inflow of modern humans in Europe.^{[10] [11]} In July 2021, scientists reported the discovery of a bone carving, one of the world'due south oldest works of art, fabricated by Neanderthals well-nigh 51,000 years ago.^{[12] [xiii]}

Upper Paleolithic [edit]

In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as former equally 52,000) years old, of an unknown animate being, in the cavern of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Borneo.^{[xiv] [15]}

Some of the oldest undisputed works of figurative art were found in the Schwäbische Alb, Baden-Württemberg, Frg. The earliest of these, the Venus figurine known as the Venus of Hohle Fels and the Lion-man figurine, date to some xl,000 years ago.

Further depictional art from the Upper Palaeolithic period (broadly 40,000 to 10,000 years ago) includes cavern painting (e.g., those at Chauvet, Altamira, Pech Merle, Arcy-sur-Cure and Lascaux) and portable art: Venus figurines like the Venus of Willendorf, equally well as brute carvings like the Swimming Reindeer, Wolverine pendant of Les Eyzies, and several of the objects known as bâtons de commandement.

Paintings in Pettakere cave on the Indonesian isle of Sulawesi are upward to 40,000 years quondam, a similar date to the oldest European cavern art, which may suggest an older common origin for this type of fine art, perhaps in Africa.^[16]

Monumental open-air fine art in Europe from this period includes the stone-art at Côa Valley and Mazouco in Portugal, Domingo García and Siega Verde in Kingdom of spain, and Rocher gravé de Fornols [fr] in France.

A cave at Turobong in South Korea containing human remains has been found to contain carved deer bones and depictions of deer that may be as much as 40,000 years onetime.^[17] Petroglyphs of deer or reindeer found at Sokchang-ri may also appointment to the Upper Paleolithic. Potsherds in a style reminiscent of early Japanese work have been found at Kosan-ri on Jeju island, which, due to lower sea levels at the time, would have been accessible from Nippon.^[xviii]

The oldest petroglyphs are dated to approximately the Mesolithic and belatedly Upper Paleolithic boundary, well-nigh ten,000 to 12,000 years agone. The earliest undisputed African rock art dates dorsum well-nigh 10,000 years. The first naturalistic paintings of humans found in Africa date back nigh 8,000 years evidently originating in the Nile River valley, spread as far west as Mali well-nigh 10,000 years ago. Noted sites containing early art include Tassili n'Ajjer in southern Algeria, Tadrart Acacus in Libya (A Unesco Earth Heritage site), and the Tibesti Mountains in northern Chad.^[19] Stone carvings at the Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa have been dated to this historic period.^[xx] Contentious dates as far dorsum as 29,000 years have been obtained at a site in Tanzania. A site at the Apollo eleven Cave complex in Namibia has been dated to 27,000 years.

Göbekli Tepe in Turkey has circles of massive T-shaped stone pillars dating back to the 10th–8th millennium BCE; the world'due south oldest known megaliths. Many of the pillars are busy with abstract, enigmatic pictograms and carved beast reliefs.

Asia [edit]

Asia was the cradle for several pregnant civilizations, virtually notably those of China and Due south Asia. The prehistory of eastern Asia is particularly interesting, equally the relatively early introduction of writing and historical tape-keeping in China has a notable impact on the immediately surrounding cultures and geographic areas. Little of the very rich traditions of the art of Mesopotamia counts as prehistoric, as writing was introduced so early there, but neighbouring cultures such as Urartu, Luristan and Persia had significant and complex artistic traditions.

A possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva", 2600–1900 BCE

Azerbaijan [edit]

The Gobustan National Park reserve located at the south-east of the Greater Caucasus Mountains in Azerbaijan, 60 km away from Baku date back more than 12 one thousand years ago. The reserve has more than six,000 rock carvings depicting mostly hunting scenes, human being and animal figures. There are likewise longship illustrations similar to Viking ships. Gobustan is also characterized by its natural musical stone called Gavaldash (tambourine rock).^{[21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [ self-published source? ]}

Indian sub-continent [edit]

The earliest Indian paintings were the stone paintings of prehistoric times, the petroglyphs as found in places like the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and some of them are dated to circa 8,000 BC.^{[26] [27] [28] [29] [30]} The Indus Valley culture produced fine pocket-size postage seals and sculptures, and may have been literate, just after its plummet at that place are relatively few creative remains until the literate flow, probably as perishable materials were used.

Prc [edit]

Prehistoric artwork such as painted pottery in Neolithic Communist china tin can be traced back to the Yangshao civilization and Longshan civilization of the Xanthous River valley. During Communist china's Bronze Historic period, Chinese of the aboriginal Shang Dynasty and Zhou Dynasty produced multitudes of Chinese ritual bronzes, which are elaborate versions of ordinary vessels and other objects used in rituals of antecedent veneration, busy with taotie motifs and by the late Shang Chinese bronze inscriptions. Discoveries in 1987 in Sanxingdui in central China revealed a previously unknown pre-literate Bronze Age civilization whose artefacts included spectacular very large bronze figures (instance left), and which appeared culturally very different from the contemporary tardily Shang, which has always formed part of the account of the continuous tradition of Chinese culture.

Nippon [edit]

According to archeological bear witness, the Jōmon people in ancient Japan were among the first to develop pottery, dated from the 11th millennium BCE. With growing sophistication, the Jōmon created patterns by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided string and sticks.

Korea [edit]

A Korean Neolithic pot found in Busan, 3500 BCE

The primeval examples of Korean fine art consist of Stone Age works dating from 3000 BCE. These mainly consist of votive sculptures, although petroglyphs accept also been recently rediscovered. Rock arts, elaborate stone tools, and potteries were also prevalent.

This early period was followed past the art styles of various Korean kingdoms and dynasties. In these periods, artists oft adopted Chinese style in their artworks. Yet, Koreans non only adopted simply also modified Chinese culture with a native preference for simple elegance, purity of nature and spontaneity. This filtering of Chinese styles later influenced Japanese creative traditions, due to cultural and geographical circumstances.

The prehistory of Korean ends with the founding of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, which are documented in the Samguk Sagi, a twelfth-century CE text written in Classical Chinese (the written language of the literati in traditional Korea), as beginning in the 1st century BCE; some mention of earlier history is likewise made in Chinese texts, like the third-century CE Sanguo Zhi.

Jeulmun period [edit]

Clearer testify of civilization emerges in the late Neolithic, known in Korea as the Jeulmun pottery menstruum, with pottery similar to that found in the side by side regions of China, decorated with Z-shaped patterns. The earliest Neolithic sites with pottery remains, for case Osan-ri, date to 6000–4500 BCE.^[18] This pottery is characterized by comb patterning, with the pot frequently having a pointed base of operations. Ornaments from this time include masks made of shell, with notable finds at Tongsam-dong, Osan-ri, and Sinam-ri. Paw-shaped clay figurines have been found at Nongpo-dong.^[31]

Mumun period [edit]

Large Heart Mumun (c. 800 BCE) storage vessel unearthed from a pit-business firm in or near Daepyeong

During the Mumun pottery period, roughly between 1500 BCE and 300 BCE, agriculture expanded, and prove of larger-scale political structures became credible, equally villages grew and some burials became more elaborate. Megalithic tombs and dolmens throughout Korea engagement to this time. The pottery of the time is in a distinctive undecorated way. Many of these changes in manner may take occurred due to immigration of new peoples from the n, although this is a bailiwick of debate.^[32] At a number of sites in southern Korea there are stone art panels that are thought to date from this period, mainly for stylistic reasons.^[33]

While the exact appointment of the introduction of bronzework into Korea is too a matter of debate, it is clear that statuary was existence worked by nigh 700 BCE. Finds include stylistically distinctive daggers, mirrors, and belt buckles, with show by the 1st century BCE of a widespread, locally distinctive, bronzeworking civilization.^[34]

Protohistoric Korea [edit]

The time between 300 BCE and the founding and stabilization of the Three Kingdoms around 300 CE is characterized artistically and archaeologically by increasing merchandise with China and Japan, something that Chinese histories of the time corroborate. The expansionist Chinese invaded and established commanderies in northern Korea as early as the 1st century BCE; they were driven out by the 4th century CE.^[35] The remains of some of these, peculiarly that of Lelang, near modern Pyongyang, have yielded many artifacts in a typical Han fashion.^[36]

Chinese histories too record the beginnings of iron works in Korea in the 1st century BCE. Stoneware and kiln-fired pottery also appears to engagement from this time, although there is controversy over the dates.^[37] Pottery of distinctly Japanese origin is establish in Korea, and metalwork of Korean origin is found in northeastern China.^[38]

Steppes Art [edit]

Tardily seventh-century Scythian plaque of a leopard

Superb samples of Steppes art - by and large golden jewellery and trappings for horse - are institute over a vast expanses of land stretching from Hungary to Mongolia. Dating from the period between the 7th and 3rd centuries BCE, the objects are usually diminutive, as may be expected from nomadic people always on the move. Art of the steppes is primarily an animal art, i.e., gainsay scenes involving several animals (real or imaginary) or single animal figures (such as golden stags) predominate. The best known of the various peoples involved are the Scythians, at the European end of the steppe, who were especially probable to coffin golden items.

Amongst the most famous finds was made in 1947, when the Soviet archaeologist Sergei Rudenko discovered a imperial burial at Pazyryk, Altay Mountains, which featured - among many other important objects - the nigh ancient extant pile rug, probably made in Persia. Unusually for prehistoric burials, those in the northern parts of the area may preserve organic materials such equally wood and textiles that normally would decay. Steppes people both gave and took influences from neighbouring cultures from Europe to Mainland china, and later Scythian pieces are heavily influenced past ancient Greek manner, and probably often fabricated by Greeks in Scythia.

Near East [edit]

The Ain Sakhri Lovers from modernistic Israel, is a minor Natufian carving in calcite, from about 9,000 BCE. Around the same time, the extraordinary site of Göbekli Tepe in eastern Turkey was begun. During the first phase, belonging to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), circles of massive only neatly shaped T-shaped stone pillars were erected – the world's oldest known megaliths.^[39] More than than 200 pillars in about 20 circles are currently known through geophysical surveys. Each colonnade has a height of up to 6 yard (twenty ft) and weighs up to ten tons. They are fitted into sockets that were hewn out of the bedrock.^[40] In the second phase, belonging to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), the erected pillars are smaller and stood in rectangular rooms with floors of polished lime. On the smoothed surfaces of the pillars in that location are reliefs of animals, abstruse patterns, and some human figures.

By convention, prehistory in the Virtually Due east is taken to continue until the rise of the Achaemenid Empire in the sixth century BCE, although writing existed in the region from nigh 2,000 years before. On that ground the very rich and long tradition of the art of Mesopotamia, equally well as Assyrian sculpture, Hittite art and many other traditions such as the Luristan bronzes all autumn under prehistoric fine art, even if covered with texts extolling the ruler, every bit many Assyrian palace reliefs are.

Europe [edit]

Stone Age [edit]

The Fine art of the Upper Paleolithic includes carvings on antler and os, especially of animals, as well as the and so-called Venus figurines and cave paintings, discussed to a higher place. Despite a warmer climate, the Mesolithic menstruation undoubtedly shows a falling-off from the heights of the preceding period. Rock fine art is found in Scandinavia and northern Russia, and around the Mediterranean in eastern Spain and the earliest of the Rock Drawings in Valcamonica in northern Italia, but not in between these areas.^{[41] [42]} Examples of portable art include painted pebbles from the Azilian culture which succeeded the Magdalenian, and patterns on utilitarian objects, like the paddles from Tybrind Vig, Denmark. The Mesolithic statues of Lepenski Vir at the Iron Gate, Serbia date to the 7th millennium BCE and represent either humans or mixtures of humans and fish. Simple pottery began to develop in various places, even in the absence of farming.

Mesolithic [edit]

Compared to the preceding Upper Paleolithic and the following Neolithic, there is rather less surviving art from the Mesolithic. The Rock fine art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin, which probably spreads across from the Upper Paleolithic, is a widespread phenomenon, much less well known than the cavern-paintings of the Upper Paleolithic, with which information technology makes an interesting contrast. The sites are at present mostly cliff faces in the open air, and the subjects are now generally human rather than beast, with large groups of small figures; at that place are 45 figures at Roca dels Moros. Clothing is shown, and scenes of dancing, fighting, hunting and food-gathering. The figures are much smaller than the animals of Paleolithic fine art, and depicted much more schematically, though ofttimes in energetic poses.^[43] A few small-scale engraved pendants with break holes and uncomplicated engraved designs are known, some from northern Europe in amber, and one from Starr Carr in Uk in shale.^[44]

The stone fine art in the Urals appears to evidence similar changes after the Paleolithic, and the wooden Shigir Idol is a rare survival of what may well have been a very common fabric for sculpture. It is a plank of larch carved with geometric motifs, but topped with a man caput. Now in fragments, it would apparently have been over 5 metres tall when made.^[45]

Neolithic [edit]

Map with distribution of statue-menhir in Europe.[1] Photos and pictures: 1y 4.-Bueno et al. 2005; two.-Santonja y Santonja 1978; three.-Jorge 1999; v.-Portela y Jiménez 1996; 6.-Romero 1981; seven.-Helgouach 1997; 8.- Tarrete 1997; ix, x, 13, 14, 29, 30, 31, 32.-Philippon 2002; 11.-Corboud y Curdy 2009; 12.-Muller 1997; 15, 16, 17, xviii, nineteen, 20, 21, 22, 23 Arnal 1976; 24 y 25.- Augusto 1972; 26 y 27.- Grosjean 1966; 34.- López et al. 2009.

In Central Europe, many Neolithic cultures, like Linearbandkeramic, Lengyel and Vinča,^[46] produced female (rarely male person) and creature statues that tin can be chosen art, and elaborate pottery ornamentation in, for instance, the Želiesovce and painted Lengyel style.

Megalithic (i.e., large stone) monuments are plant in the Neolithic Era from Republic of malta to Portugal, through French republic, and across southern England to well-nigh of Wales and Ireland. They are likewise establish in northern Germany and Poland, every bit well as in Egypt in the Sahara desert (at Nabta Playa and other sites). The best preserved of all temples and the oldest free standing structures are the Megalithic Temples of Republic of malta. They offset in the 5th millennium BC, though some authors speculate on Mesolithic roots. One of the best-known prehistoric sites is Stonehenge, part of the Stonehenge World Heritage Site which contains hundreds of monuments and archaeological sites. Monuments have been plant throughout most of Western and Northern Europe, notably at Carnac, French republic.

Entrance stone with megalithic fine art at Newgrange

The large mound tomb at Newgrange, Republic of ireland, dating to around 3200 BC, has its entrance marked with a massive stone carved with a complex pattern of spirals. The mound at nearby Knowth has large flat rocks with rock engravings on their vertical faces all effectually its circumference, for which various meanings take been suggested, including depictions of the local valley, and the oldest known epitome of the Moon. Many of these monuments were megalithic tombs, and archaeologists speculate that about take religious significance. Knowth is reputed to have approximately i 3rd of all megalithic art in Western Europe.

In the central Alps, the Camunni made some 350,000 petroglyphs: come across Stone Drawings in Valcamonica.

Bronze Age [edit]

During the 3rd millennium BCE, the Bronze Age began in Europe, bringing with information technology a new medium for art. The increased efficiency of bronze tools besides meant an increase in productivity, which led to a surplus — the start step in the creation of a class of artisans. Because of the increased wealth of society, luxury goods began to be created, particularly decorated weapons.

Examples include ceremonial bronze helmets, ornamental ax-heads and swords, elaborate instruments such as lurer, and other ceremonial objects without a practical purpose, such every bit the oversize Oxborough Dirk. Special objects were made in gold; many more gilt objects have survived from Western and Central Europe than from the Iron Historic period, many mysterious and foreign objects ranging from lunulas, apparently an Irish speciality, the Mold Greatcoat and Golden hats. Pottery from Key Europe tin can be elaborately shaped and decorated. Stone art, showing scenes from the religious rituals have been found in many areas, for example in Bohuslän, Sweden and the Val Camonica in northern Italy.

In the Mediterranean, the Minoan civilisation was highly developed, with palace complexes from which sections of frescos take been excavated. Contemporary Ancient Egyptian art and that of other advanced Almost Eastern cultures tin can no longer be treated every bit "prehistoric".

Iron Historic period [edit]

The Iron Historic period saw the development of anthropomorphic sculptures, such as the warrior of Hirschlanden, and the statue from the Glauberg, Deutschland. Hallstatt artists in the early Iron Age favored geometric, abstract designs perhaps influenced by trade links with the Classical world.

The more elaborate and curvilinear La Tène style developed in Europe in the later Iron Historic period from a centre in the Rhine valley only it soon spread across the continent. The rich chieftain classes announced to have encouraged ostentation and Classical influences such every bit bronze drinking vessels attest to a new style for wine drinking. Communal eating and drinking were an important part of Celtic society and culture and much of their art was often expressed through plates, knives, cauldrons and cups. Equus caballus tack and weaponry were as well decorated. Mythical animals were a common motif along with religious and natural subjects and their depiction is a mix between the naturalistic and the stylized. Megalithic art was still sometimes practiced, examples include the carved limestone pillars of the sanctuary at Entremont in modern-day France. Personal adornment included torc necklaces whilst the introduction of coinage provided a further opportunity for artistic expression. The coins of this menstruation are derivatives of Greek and Roman types, merely showing the more exuberant Celtic artistic style.

A 1st century BCE mirror found in Desborough, England, showing the spiral and trumpet motif

The famous late 4th century BCE Waldalgesheim chariot burial in the Rhineland produced many fine examples of La Tène art including a bronze flagon and bronze plaques with repoussé human figures. Many pieces had curvy, organic styles though to be derived from Classical tendril patterns.

In much of western Europe elements of this artistic style can be discerned surviving in the art and architecture of the Roman colonies. In particular in Britain and Ireland there is a tenuous continuity through the Roman period, enabling Celtic motifs to resurface with new vigour in the Christian Insular art from the 6th century onwards.

The sophisticated Etruscan culture developed from the ninth to 2nd centuries, with considerable influence from the Greeks, before finally being captivated by the Romans. By the end of the period they had developed writing, but early on Etruscan art can be called prehistoric.

Africa [edit]

Ancient Arab republic of egypt falls exterior the scope of this article; it had a close relationship with the Sudan in particular, known in this period as Nubia, where in that location were advanced cultures from the 4th millennium BCE, such equally the "A-Group", "C-Group", and the Kingdom of Kush.

Southern Africa [edit]

In September 2018, scientists from the University of Bergen, the University of Bordeaux and the Academy of the Witwatersrand together reported the discovery of the earliest known drawing by Homo sapiens at Blombos Cavern, South Africa which is estimated to be 73,000 years old, much earlier than the 43,000 years quondam artifacts understood to be the earliest known modern human drawings institute previously.^[ii]

In that location is a significant trunk of rock painting in the region around Matobo National Park of Zimbabwe dating from as early on as 6000 BCE to 500 CE.^[47]

Significant San stone paintings exist in the Waterberg area above the Palala River and around Drakensberg in South Africa, some of which are considered to derive from the catamenia 8000 BCE. These images are very clear and depict a variety of human and wildlife motifs, especially antelope. There appears to be a fairly continuous history of rock painting in this area; some of the art clearly dates into the 19th century. They include depictions of horses with riders, which were not introduced to the area until the 1820s.^[48]

Namibia, in improver to the Apollo 11 Cave complex, has a significant assortment of San stone fine art near Twyfelfontein. This work is several thousand years onetime, and appears to end with the arrival of pastoral tribes in the area.^[49]

Horn of Africa [edit]

Laas Geel is a complex of caves and stone shelters in northwestern Somalia. Famous for their rock art, the caves are located in a rural surface area on the outskirts of Hargeisa. They incorporate some of the earliest known cave paintings in the Horn of Africa, many of which depict pastoral scenes. Laas Geel'south rock art is estimated to date dorsum to somewhere betwixt nine,000–viii,000 and 3,000 BCE.

In 2008, archaeologists also announced the discovery of cave paintings in Somalia's northern Dhambalin region, which the researchers advise includes one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the Ethiopian-Arabian way, dated to 1000 to 3000 BCE.^{[l] [51]}

Other prehistoric art in the Horn region include rock megaliths and engravings, some of which are iii,500 years old. The town of Dillo in Ethiopia has a hilltop covered with stone stelae. Information technology is one of several such sites in southern Ethiopia dating from historic period^{[ description needed ]} (10th-14th centuries).^[52]

Saharan Africa [edit]

The early art of this region has been divided into v periods:

• Bubalus Period, roughly 12-8 kya
• Round Caput Period, roughly 10-eight kya
• Pastoral Period, roughly 7.v-four kya
• Horse Period, roughly three-two kya
• Camel Period, 2,000 years ago to the present

Works of the Bubalus period span the Sahara, with the finest work, carvings of naturalistically depicted megafauna, concentrated in the central highlands. The Round Head Period is dominated by paintings of strangely shaped homo forms, and few animals, suggesting the artists were foragers. These works are largely limited to Tassili n'Ajjer and the Tadrart Acacus. Toward the end of the period, images of domesticated animals, as well as decorative vesture and headdresses appear. Pastoral Catamenia fine art was more focused on domestic scenes, including herding and dancing. The quality of artwork declined, as figures became more simplified.^[53]

The Horse Period began in the eastern Sahara and spread west. Depictions from this period include carvings and paintings of horses, chariots, and warriors with metal weapons, although there are too frequent depictions of wild fauna such as giraffes. Humans are generally depicted in a stylized style. Some of the chariot art bears resemblance to temple carvings from ancient Egypt. Occasionally, art panels are accompanied by Tifinagh script, yet in use by the Berber people and the Tuareg today; nevertheless, modernistic Tuareg are generally unable to read these inscriptions. The final Camel period features carvings and paintings in which camels predominate, but also include humans with swords, and later, guns; the art of this time is relatively crude.^[54]

N Africa [edit]

The Americas [edit]

North America [edit]

Belonging in the Lithic phase, the oldest known fine art in the Americas is the Vero Beach bone, possibly a mammoth os, etched with a profile of walking mammoth that dates back to eleven,000 BCE.^[55] The oldest known painted object in the Americas is the Cooper Bison Skull from 10,900 to x,200 BCE.^[56]

Mesoamerica [edit]

The ancient Olmec "Bird Vessel" and bowl, both ceramic and dating to circa 1000 BC too as other ceramics were produced in kilns capable of exceeding approximately 900 °C. The only other prehistoric civilization known to take achieved such high temperatures is that of Ancient Egypt.^[57]

Much Olmec fine art is highly stylized and uses an iconography cogitating of the religious significant of the artworks. Some Olmec fine art, however, is surprisingly naturalistic, displaying an accuracy of depiction of human anatomy perhaps equaled in the pre-Columbian New World merely by the all-time Maya Classic-era fine art. Olmec art-forms emphasize monumental statuary and pocket-sized jade carvings. A mutual theme is to be institute in representations of a divine jaguar. Olmec figurines were as well found abundantly through their menses.

S America [edit]

Lithic age art in Due south America includes Monte Alegre civilisation rock paintings created at Caverna da Pedra Pintada dating dorsum to 9250–8550 BCE.^{[58] [59]} Guitarrero Cave in Peru has the earliest known textiles in South America, dating to 8000 BCE.^[60]

Peru and the fundamental Andes [edit]

Lithic and preceramic periods [edit]

Peru, including an surface area of the primal Andes stretching from the northern part of the land to northern Republic of chile, has a rich cultural history, with evidence of man home dating to roughly 10,000 BCE.^[61] Prior to the emergence of ceramics in this region effectually 1850 BCE, cave paintings and beads have been establish. These finds include rock paintings that controversially date equally far back equally 9500 BCE in the Toquepala Caves.^[62] Burial sites in Peru like one at Telarmachay as old as 8600-7200 BCE contained bear witness of ritual burying, with blood-red ocher and bead necklaces.^[63]

The earliest ceramics that announced in Peru may have been imported from the Validivia region; indigenous pottery production virtually certainly arrived in the highlands around 1800 BCE at Kotosh, and on the coast at La Florida c. 1700 BCE. Older calabash gourd vessels with human faces burned into them were establish at Huaca Prieta, a site dating to 2500-2000 BCE^[64] Huaca Prieta besides contained some early patterned and dyed textiles made from twisted plant fibers.^[65]

Initial Menses and Outset Horizon [edit]

The Initial Menses in Central Andean cultures lasted roughly from 1800 BCE to 900 BCE. Textiles from this time found at Huaca Prieta are of astonishing complication, including images such as crabs whose claws transform into snakes, and double-headed birds. Many of these images are similar to optical illusions, where which image dominates depends in part on which the viewer chooses to see. Other portable artwork from this time includes decorated mirrors, bone and shell jewelry, and unfired clay female effigies.^[66] Public architecture, including works estimated to crave the movement of more than 100,000 tons of rock, are to be establish at sites like Kotosh, El Paraíso, Republic of peru, and La Galgada (archaeological site). Kotosh, a site in the Andean highlands, is especially noted as the site of the Temple of the Crossed Hands, in which at that place are two reliefs of crossed forearms, one pair male, one pair female.^[67] Too of notation is one of South America's largest ceremonial sites, Sechín Alto. This site's crowning work is a twelve-story platform, with stones incised with military themes.^[68] The architecture and art of the highlands, in particular, laid down the groundwork for the rise of the Chavín civilisation.^[69]

The Chavín culture dominated the primal Andes during the Kickoff Horizon, commencement around 900 BCE, and is generally divided into two stages. The offset, running until near 500 BCE, represented a significant cultural unification of the highland and coastal cultures of the time. Imagery in all manner of art (textiles, ceramics, jewelry, and architectural) included sometimes fantastic imagery such as jaguars, snakes, and human–animal composites, much of information technology seemingly inspired by the jungles to the east.^[lxx]

The later phase of the Chavín culture is primarily represented by a significant architectural expansion of the Chavín de Huantar site around 500 BCE, accompanied by a prepare of stylistic changes. This expansion included, among other changes, over forty large rock heads, whose reconstructed positions represent a transformation from homo to supernatural animal visages. Much of the other art at the circuitous from this fourth dimension contains such supernatural imagery.^[71] The portable art associated with this time included sophisticated metalworking, including alloying of metals and soldering.^[72] Textiles found at sites like Karwa clearly describe Chavín cultural influences,^[73] and the Cupisnique style of pottery disseminated by the Chavín would set standards all beyond the region for later cultures.^[74] (The vessel pictured at the top of this article, while from the later Moche civilization, is representative of the stirrup-spouted vessels of the Chavín.)

Early Intermediate Flow [edit]

A Paracas Mantle dating from 200 CE

The Early Intermediate Period lasted from about 200 BCE to 600 CE. Belatedly in the First Horizon, the Chavín civilisation began to decline, and other cultures, predominantly in the coastal areas, began to develop. The primeval of these was the Paracas civilisation, centered on the Paracas Peninsula of central Peru. Active from 600 BCE to 175 BCE, their early work clearly shows Chavín influence, but a locally distinctive way and technique adult. Information technology was characterized by technical and fourth dimension-consuming detail piece of work, visually colorful, and a profusion visual elements. Distinctive technical differences include painting on clay after firing, and embroidery on textiles.^[75] One notable find is a mantle that was clearly used for preparation purposes; it shows obvious indications of experts doing some of the weaving, interspersed with less technically proficient trainee work.^[76]

The Nazca culture of southern Republic of peru, which is widely known for the enormous figures traced on the basis by the Nazca lines in southern Republic of peru, shared some similarities with the Paracas culture, simply techniques (and calibration) differed. The Nazca painted their ceramics with slip, and also painted their textiles.^[77] Nazca ceramics featured a wide diverseness of subjects, from the mundane to the fantastic, including utilitarian vessels and figure figures. The Nazca likewise excelled at goldsmithing, and made pan pipes from dirt in a mode non dissimilar the pipes heard in music of the Andes today.^[78]

The famous Nazca lines are accompanied by temple-like constructions (showing no sign of permanent dwelling) and open plazas that presumably had ritual purposes related to the lines. The lines themselves are laid out on a sort of natural blackboard, where a thin layer of dark stone covers lighter stone; the lines were thus created by merely removing the top layer where desired, after using surveying techniques to lay out the pattern.^[79]

In the north of Republic of peru, the Moche culture dominated during this time. Also known as Mochica or Early Chimú, this warlike civilisation dominated the area until nigh 500 CE, plain using conquest to proceeds access to critical resources along the desert declension: arable state and h2o. Moche art is again notably distinctive, expressive and dynamic in a mode that many other Andean cultures were not. Knowledge of the period has been notably expanded by finds like the pristine purple tombs at Sipán.^[lxxx]

The Moche very evidently captivated some elements of the Chavín civilization, simply also absorbed ideas from smaller nearby cultures that they alloyed, such as the Recuay culture and the Vicús.^[81] They made fully sculpted ceramic creature figures, worked gold, and wove textiles. The fine art often featured everyday images, but seemingly always with a ritual intent.^[82]

In its afterwards years, the Moche came under the influence of the expanding Huari empire. The Cerro Blanco site of Huaca del Sol appears to have been the Moche capital. Largely destroyed past natural events around 600 CE, it was further damaged past Spanish conquistadors searching for gilt, and continues with modern looters.^[83]

Heart Horizon [edit]

Ponce monolith in the sunken courtyard of the Tiwanaku'due south Kalasasaya temple

The Center Horizon lasted from 600 CE to 1000 CE, and was dominated by two cultures: the Huari and the Tiwanaku. The Tiwanaku (likewise spelled Tiahuanaco) culture arose near Lake Titicaca (on the modernistic border between Peru and Bolivia), while the Wari culture arose in the southern highlands of Peru. Both cultures announced to have been influenced past the Pukara civilisation, which was active during the Early Intermediate in between the primary centers of the Wari and Tiwanaku.^[84] These cultures both had wide-ranging influence, and shared some common features in their portable art, merely their awe-inspiring arts were somewhat distinctive.^[85]

The monumental art of the Tiwanaku demonstrated technical prowess in stonework, including fine detailed reliefs, and monoliths such as the Ponce monolith (photo to the left), and the Lord's day Gate, both in the main Tiwanaku site. The portable art featured "portrait vessels", with figured heads on ceramic vessels, likewise as natural imagery like jaguars and raptors.^[86] A full range of materials, from ceramics to textiles to wood, os, and shell, were used in artistic endeavours. Textiles with a weave of 300 threads per inch (fourscore threads per cm) take been found at Tiwanaku sites.^[87]

The Wari dominated an expanse from northern to central Peru, with their master eye almost Ayacucho. Their art is distinguished from the Tiwanaku fashion by the use of bolder colors and patterns.^[88] Notable among Wari finds are tapestry garments, presumed to exist made for priests or rulers to wear, oft bearing abstruse geometric designs of significant complexity, but too begetting images of animals and figures.^[89] Wari ceramics, also of high technical quality, are similar in many ways to those of the preceding cultures, where local influences from fallen cultures, like the Moche, are still somewhat evident. Metalwork, while rarely found due to its desirability by looters, shows elegant simplicity and, again, a high level of workmanship.^[90]

Tardily Intermediate Period [edit]

Following the decline of the Wari and Tiwanaku, the northern and central coastal areas were somewhat dominated past the Chimú civilisation, which included notable subcultures like the Lambayeque (or Sicán) and Chancay cultures. To the s, littoral cultures dominated in the Ica region, and at that place was a significant cultural crossroads at Pachacamac, near Lima.^[91] These cultures would boss from about 1000 CE until the 1460s and 1470s, as the Inca Empire began to take shape and somewhen absorbed the geographically smaller nearby cultures.

Chimú and Sicán Cultures

The Chimú culture in item was responsible for an extremely large number of artworks. Its uppercase city, Chan Chan, appears to have contained building that appeared to function equally museums—they seem to have been used for displaying and preserving artwork. Much of the artwork from Chan Chan in item has been looted, some past the Spanish after the Spanish conquest.^[91] The art from this time at times displays amazing complexity, with "multimedia" works that crave artists working together in a diversity of media, including materials believed to have come from as far abroad equally Central America. Items of increasing splendor or value were produced, apparently as the gild became increasing stratified.^[92] At the same, the quality of some of the work declined, as need for pieces pushed product rates upwards and values downwards.^[93]

The Sicán civilisation flourished from 700 CE to about 1400 CE, although it came under political domination of the Chimú effectually 1100 CE, at which fourth dimension many of its artists may accept moved to Chan Chan. At that place was significant copperworking by the Sicán, including what seems to exist a sort of currency based on copper objects that look like axes.^[94] Artwork includes burial masks, beakers and metallic vessels that previous cultures traditionally fabricated of clay. The metalwork of the Sicán was especially sophisticated, with innovations including repoussé and shell inlay. Sheet metal was besides often used to cover other works.^[95]

Prominent in Sicán iconography is the Sicán deity, which appears on all manner of piece of work, from the portable to the monumental. Other imagery includes geometric and wave patterns, every bit well as scenes of line-fishing and crush diving.^[96]

Chancay culture Chancay culture, earlier information technology was subsumed by the Chimú, did not characteristic notable monumental fine art. Ceramics and textiles were made, but the quality and skill level was uneven. Ceramics are mostly black on white, and ofttimes endure from flaws like poor firing, and drips of the slip used for colour; however, fine examples exist. Textiles are overall of a college quality, including the use of painted weaves and tapestry techniques, and were produced in large quantities.^[97] The color palette of the Chancay was not overly bold: golds, browns, white, and carmine predominate.^[98]

Pachacamac Pachacamac is a temple site south of Lima, Peru that was an important pilgrimage centre into Spanish colonial times. The site boasts temple constructions from several periods, culminating in Inca constructions that are still in relatively practiced condition. The temples were painted with murals depicting plants and animals. The main temple independent a carved wooden sculpture akin to a totem pole.^[98]

Ica culture The Ica region, which had been dominated by the Nazca, was fragmented into several smaller political and civilisation groups. The pottery produced in this region was of the highest quality at the fourth dimension, and its aesthetics would exist adopted by the Inca when they conquered the surface area.^[99]

Late Horizon and Inca civilisation [edit]

An 1860 map of Cusco. The puma shape is discernible, with the head at the upper left and the tail at the lower right.

The twelve bending rock, in the Hatum Rumiyoc street of Cusco, is an example of Inca masonry.

This time period represents the era in which the culture of the central Andes is almost completely dominated by the Inca Empire, which began its expansion in 1438. It lasted until the Spanish conquest in 1533. The Inca absorbed much technical skill from the cultures they conquered, and disseminated it, forth with standard shapes and patterns, throughout their area of influence, which extended from Quito, Ecuador to Santiago, Chile. Inca stonework is notably proficient; behemothic stones are set up so tightly without mortar that a pocketknife blade will not fit in the gap.^[100] Many of the Inca'due south awe-inspiring structures deliberately echoed the natural surroundings around them; this is peculiarly evident in some of the structures at Machu Picchu.^[101] The Inca laid the city of Cusco in the shape of a puma, with the caput of the puma at Sacsayhuaman,^[102] a shape that is even so discernible in aerial photographs of the city today.

The iconography of Inca art, while conspicuously drawing from its many predecessors, is nevertheless recognizably Inca. Bronzework owes a articulate debt to the Chimú, as do a number of cultural traditions: the finest goods were reserved to the rulers, who wore the finest textiles, and ate and drank from gold and silver vessels.^[103] As a event, Inca metalwork was relatively rare, and an obvious source of plunder for the conquering Spanish.

Textiles were widely prized within the empire, in function as they were somewhat more than portable in the far-flung empire.^[104]

Ceramics were made in big quantities, and, as with other media, in standardized shapes and patterns. I mutual shape is the urpu, a distinctive urn shape that came in a broad diverseness of standard capacities, much as modern storage containers do.^[105] In spite of this standardization, many local areas retained some distinctive aspects of their culture in the works they produced; ceramics produced in areas under significant Chimú command prior to the Inca rule still retain characteristics indicative of that style.^[106]

Following the Spanish conquest, the art of the central Andes was significantly afflicted by the conflict and diseases brought past the Spanish. Early on colonial period fine art, began to bear witness influences of both Christianity and Inca religious and artistic ideas, and eventually also began to encompass new techniques brought by the conquerors, including oil painting on canvas.^[107]

Early ceramics in northern South America [edit]

The earliest testify of decorated pottery in Due south America is to be institute in ii places. A variety of sites in the Santarém region of Brazil incorporate ceramic sherds dating to a flow betwixt 5000 and 3000 BCE.^[108] Sites in Colombia, at Monsú and San Jacinto contained pottery finds in different styles, and date as far back as 3500 BCE.^[109] This is an area of active research and field of study to alter.^[110] The ceramics were decorated with curvilinear incisions. Another aboriginal site at Puerto Hormiga in the Bolívar Department of Colombia dating to 3100 BCE contained pottery fragments that included figured animals in a way related to later Barrancoid cultural finds in Colombia and Venezuela.^[109] Valdivia, Ecuador also has a site dated to roughly 3100 BCE containing decorated fragments, also as figurines, many stand for nude females. The Valdivian fashion stretched as far south as northern Peru,^[111] and may, according to Lavallée, all the same yield older artifacts.^[108]

Past 2000 BCE, pottery was evident in eastern Venezuela. The La Gruta style, often painted in ruby-red or white, included incised animate being figures in the ceramic, besides as ceramic vessels shaped every bit creature effigies. The Rancho Peludo style of western Venezuela featured relatively simple textile-type decorations and incisions.^[111] Finds in the primal Andes dating to 1800 BCE and later appear to be derived from the Valdivian tradition of Republic of ecuador.^[112]

Early art in eastern Southward America [edit]

Relatively little is known near the early settlement of much of Southward America due east of the Andes. This is due to the lack of rock (generally required for leaving durable artifacts), and a jungle environment that rapidly recycles organic materials. Beyond the Andean regions, where the inhabitants were more conspicuously related to the early cultures of Peru, early finds are generally limited to coastal areas and those areas where at that place are stone outcrops. While there is testify of human being domicile in northern Brazil as early as 8000 BCE,^[113] and rock art of unknown (or at best uncertain) age, ceramics announced to be the earliest artistic artifacts. The Mina culture of Brazil (3000–1600 BCE) had simple round vessels with a blood-red wash, that were stylistic predecessors to later Bahia and Guyanese cultures.^[111]

Southern South America [edit]

The southern reaches of Due south America testify evidence of human habitation as far dorsum as 10,000 BCE. A site at Arroio do Fosseis on the pampa in southern Brazil has shown reliable evidence to that time,^[114] and the Tierra del Fuego at the southern tip of the continent has been occupied since 7000 BCE.^[115] Creative finds are scarce; in some parts of Patagonia ceramics were never made, only existence introduced by contact with Europeans.^[116]

Oceania [edit]

Australia [edit]

From earliest times Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders have been creating distinctive patterns of art. Much of the fine art is transitory, drawn in sand or on the homo body to illustrate a place, a totem, or a cultural story. Early surviving artworks are generally rock paintings. Some are called X-ray paintings because they show the bones and organs of the animals they draw. Some Aboriginal art appears equally abstruse to mod viewers; Ancient art employs geometrical figures, dots and lines to present the story being told.

The Gwion Gwion rock art are 1 of many styles of stone fine art constitute in Western Australia. They are predominantly human figures drawn in fine detail with authentic anatomical proportioning. They are usually dated to exist at least 17,000 years old, and there have been suggestions they are every bit much as 70,000 years erstwhile.^[117] The Sydney rock engravings are also a prominent rock fine art site in the country.^[118]

Polynesia [edit]

The natives of Polynesia take a singled-out artistic heritage. While many of their artifacts were made with organic materials and thus lost to history, some of their well-nigh hitting achievements survive in clay and stone. Among these are numerous pottery fragments from western Oceania, from the tardily 2nd millennium BCE. As well, the natives of Polynesia left scattered around their islands Petroglyphs, rock platforms or Marae, and sculptures of ancestor figures, the nigh famous of which are the Moai of Easter Isle.

See besides [edit]

• Çatalhüyük
• List of Stone Age art
• Nevalı Çori
• Prehistoric music
• Prehistoric religion

Notes [edit]

1. ^ "The term "prehistoric" ceases to be valid some thousands of years B.C. in the Middle Eastward but remains a warranted description downwards to about 500 A.D. in Ireland", Review by "A. T. 50." of Prehistoric Art past T. G. E. Powell, The Periodical of the Royal Guild of Antiquaries of Ireland, Vol. 97, No. 1 (1967), p. 95, Royal Social club of Antiquaries of Republic of ireland, JSTOR
2. ^ ^{a b c d} St. Fleur, Nicholas (12 September 2018). "Oldest Known Drawing by Human Hands Discovered in South African Cavern". The New York Times . Retrieved 15 September 2018.
3. ^ "Crush 'art' fabricated 300,000 years before humans evolved - New Scientist". New Scientist.
4. ^ ^{a b} Joordens, Josephine C. A.; d'Errico, Francesco; Wesselingh, Frank P.; Munro, Stephen; de Vos, John; Wallinga, Jakob; Ankjærgaard, Christina; Reimann, Tony; Wijbrans, January R.; Kuiper, Klaudia F.; Mücher, Herman J. (2015). "Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving". Nature. 518 (7538): 228–231. Bibcode:2015Natur.518..228J. doi:x.1038/nature13962. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 25470048. S2CID 4461751.
5. ^ New York Times
6. ^ The Metropolitan Museum of New York City Introduction to Prehistoric Art Retrieved 2012-5-12
7. ^ Hunt, pp. 145-146
8. ^ Henshilwood, Christopher; Niekerk, Karen Loise van. "Due south Africa's Blombos cavern is home to the earliest drawing by a human". The Conversation . Retrieved 2020-02-17 .
9. ^ "Discovery of the earliest drawing". ScienceDaily . Retrieved 2020-02-17 .
10. ^ D. L. Hoffmann; C. D. Standish; K. García-Diez; P. B. Pettitt; J. A. Milton; J. Zilhão; J. J. Alcolea-González; P. Cantalejo-Duarte; H. Collado; R. de Balbín; Yard. Lorblanchet; J. Ramos-Muñoz; G.-Ch. Weniger; A. W. Yard. Pike (2018). "U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art". Science. 359 (6378): 912–915. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..912H. doi:10.1126/scientific discipline.aap7778. PMID 29472483.
11. ^ Marris, Emma (22 February 2018). "Neanderthal artists made oldest-known cave paintings". Nature. doi:x.1038/d41586-018-02357-8.
12. ^ Feehly, Conor (vi July 2021). "Beautiful Bone Carving From 51,000 Years Agone Is Changing Our View of Neanderthals". ScienceAlert . Retrieved 6 July 2021.
13. ^ Leder, Dirk; et al. (5 July 2021). "A 51,000-year-erstwhile engraved bone reveals Neanderthals' capacity for symbolic behaviour". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 594 (nine): 1273–1282. doi:10.1038/s41559-021-01487-z. PMID 34226702. S2CID 235746596. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
14. ^ ^{a b} Zimmer, Carl (seven November 2018). "In Cave in Borneo Jungle, Scientists Observe Oldest Figurative Painting in the World - A cavern drawing in Kalimantan is at least 40,000 years old, raising intriguing questions about inventiveness in aboriginal societies". The New York Times . Retrieved 8 November 2018.
15. ^ ^{a b} Aubert, Yard.; et al. (7 Nov 2018). "Palaeolithic cave art in Borneo". Nature. 564 (7735): 254–257. Bibcode:2018Natur.564..254A. doi:x.1038/s41586-018-0679-9. PMID 30405242. S2CID 53208538.
16. ^ "Indonesian Cave Paintings Equally Old Every bit Europe'due south Ancient Art". NPR.org. eight October 2014.
17. ^ Portal, p. 25
18. ^ ^{a b} Portal, p. 26
19. ^ Coulson, pp. 150–155
20. ^ Thackeray.
21. ^ Republic of azerbaijan, Azerbaijan (2005). Azerbaijan. Cavendish Square Publishing. pp. eighteen. ISBN9780761420118.
22. ^ Azerbaijan: Mosques, Turrets, Palaces, Azerbaijan: Mosques, Turrets, Palaces (1979). Azerbaijan: Mosques, Turrets, Palaces. Corvina Kiadó. p. 8. ISBN9789631303216. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
23. ^ A Historical Atlas of Azerbaijan (Historical Atlases of South Asia, Central Asia, and The Middle East), A Historical Atlas of Azerbaijan (Historical Atlases of South asia, Fundamental Asia, and The Middle East) (2004). A Historical Atlas of Azerbaijan (Historical Atlases of South Asia, Central Asia, and The Middle East). Rosen Pub Group. p. xi. ISBN978-0823944972. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
24. ^ "The Rock Engravings of Gobustan". donsmaps.com . Retrieved 2019-02-07 .
25. ^ Pre-Columbian Trans-Oceanic Contact. Lulu.com. 2016. p. 98. ISBN978-1329972162. ^{[ self-published source ]}
26. ^ Mathpal, Yashodhar (1984). Prehistoric Painting Of Bhimbetka. Abhinav Publications. p. 220. ISBN9788170171935.
27. ^ Tiwari, Shiv Kumar (2000). Riddles of Indian Rockshelter Paintings. Sarup & Sons. p. 189. ISBN9788176250863.
28. ^ Stone Shelters of Bhimbetka (PDF). UNESCO. 2003. p. 16.
29. ^ Mithen, Steven (2011). Later the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000 - 5000 BC. Orion. p. 524. ISBN9781780222592.
30. ^ Javid, Ali; Jāvīd, ʻAlī; Javeed, Tabassum (2008). Earth Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in Republic of india. Algora Publishing. p. 19. ISBN9780875864846.
31. ^ Portal, p. 27
32. ^ Portal, p. 29
33. ^ Portal, p. 33
34. ^ Portal, pp. 34–35
35. ^ Portal, p. 38
36. ^ Portal, p. 39
37. ^ Portal, p. 40
38. ^ Portal, p. 41
39. ^ Sagona, Claudia (2015-08-25). The Archaeology of Malta. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. ISBN9781107006690 . Retrieved 25 November 2016.
40. ^ Curry, Andrew (Nov 2008). "Gobekli Tepe: The World's First Temple?". Smithsonian.com. Retrieved Baronial 2, 2013.
41. ^ Sandars, 75-98
42. ^ "Rock Drawings in Valcamonica" (PDF).
43. ^ Sandars, Nancy M., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), pp. 87-96, 1968 (nb 1st edn.)
44. ^ "xi,000 year old pendant is earliest known Mesolithic art in United kingdom", University of York
45. ^ Geggel, Laura (April 25, 2018). "This Eerie, Human being-Like Figure Is Twice As Old As Egypt's Pyramids". Alive Science . Retrieved April 28, 2018.
46. ^ Borić, Dušan; Hanks, Bryan; Šljivar, Duško; Kočić, Miroslav; Bulatović, Jelena; Griffiths, Seren; Doonan, Roger; Jacanović, Dragan (June 2018). "Enclosing the Neolithic World: A Vinča Culture Enclosed and Fortified Settlement in the Balkans". Current Anthropology. 59 (3): 336–345. doi:10.1086/697534. hdl:11573/1545302. S2CID 150068332.
47. ^ Coulson, p. 86
48. ^ Coulson, pp. 80–82
49. ^ Unesco World Heritage designation.
50. ^ Mire, Sada (2008). "The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Fine art Site, Somaliland". African Archaeological Review. 25 (3–four): 153–168. doi:x.1007/s10437-008-9032-2. S2CID 162960112. Archived from the original on 27 June 2013. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
51. ^ Alberge, Dalya (17 September 2010). "Great britain archaeologist finds cave paintings at 100 new African sites". The Guardian . Retrieved 25 June 2013.
52. ^ Coulson, p. 147
53. ^ Coulson, pp. 156–160
54. ^ Coulson, pp. 160–162,205
55. ^ "Ice Historic period Art from Florida." Past Horizons. 23 June 2011 (retrieved 23 June 2011)
56. ^ Bement, Leland C. Bison hunting at Cooper site: where lightning bolts drew thundering herds. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999: 37, 43, 176. ISBN 978-0-8061-3053-8.
57. ^ Friedman, Florence Dunn (September 1998). "Ancient Egyptian faience". Archived from the original on 2004-10-20. Retrieved 2008-12-22 .
58. ^ Wilford, John Noble. Scientist at Piece of work: Anna C. Roosevelt; Sharp and To the Point In Amazonia. New York Times. 23 April 1996
59. ^ "Dating a Paleoindian Site in the Amazon in Comparison with Clovis Civilisation." Science. March 1997: Vol. 275, no. 5308, pp. 194801952. (retrieved i November 2009)
60. ^ Stone-Miller, 17
61. ^ Lavallée, p. 88
62. ^ Lavallée, p. 94
63. ^ Lavallée, p. 115
64. ^ Lavallée, p. 186
65. ^ Bruhns, p. 80
66. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. xix–xx
67. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 21
68. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 27
69. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 22
70. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 28–29
71. ^ Stone-Miller, p. twoscore
72. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 44
73. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 46
74. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 49
75. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 50
76. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 58
77. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 67
78. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 74–75
79. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 78–82
80. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 83
81. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 88
82. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 86
83. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 92
84. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 121–123
85. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 119
86. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 131–134
87. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 136
88. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. 138–139
89. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. 146–148
90. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. 149–150
91. ^ ^{a b} Rock-Miller, p. 151
92. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 153
93. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 154
94. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 156
95. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. 156–158
96. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 160
97. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 175–177
98. ^ ^{a b} Stone-Miller, p. 179
99. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 180
100. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 181
101. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 190
102. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 194
103. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 186
104. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 209
105. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 215
106. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 216
107. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 217
108. ^ ^{a b} Lavallée, p. 182
109. ^ ^{a b} Bruhns, pp. 116–117
110. ^ Lavallée, pp. 176–182
111. ^ ^{a b c} Bruhns, pp. 117–118
112. ^ Bruhns, p. 119
113. ^ Lavallée, p. 113
114. ^ Lavallée, p. 108
115. ^ Lavallée, p. 112
116. ^ Lavallée, p. 187
117. ^ Bradshaw Foundation. "The Bradshaw Paintings - Australian Rock Art Archive". Bradshaw Foundation.
118. ^ Bowdler, Sandra. "Balls Head: the excavation of a Port Jackson rock shelter. Records of the Australian Museum 28(seven): 117–128, plates 17–21. [4 October 1971]" (PDF). AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS. Australian Museum. Retrieved April 28, 2012.

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• Sandars, Nancy K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), 1968 (nb 1st edn.)
• Rock-Miller, Rebecca (1995). Art of the Andes . Thames and Hudson. ISBN978-0-500-20286-9.
• Thackeray, Anne I.; Thackeray, JF; Beaumont, Atomic number 82; Vogel, JC; et al. (1981-10-02). "Dated Rock Engravings from Wonderwerk Cave, S Africa". Science. 214 (4516): 64–67. Bibcode:1981Sci...214...64T. doi:x.1126/science.214.4516.64. PMID 17802575. S2CID 29714094.
• "Unesco World Heritage announcement on Twyfelfontein". Retrieved 2008-xi-13 .

External links [edit]

• RockArtScandinavia Tanums Hällristningsmuseum Underslös. Rock art research centre.
• EuroPreArt database of European Prehistoric Art
• Lepenski Vir
• Göbekli Tepe, in High german
• Nevali Cori
• Prehistoric Art Expressions from India
• http://witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHprehistoric.html#general
• http://donsmaps.com/combarelles.html
• Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_art

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